Wine History

The spread of viticulture

Vitis vinifera was being cultivated in the Middle East by 4000 BC, and probably earlier. Egyptian records dating from 2500 BC refer to the use of grapes for wine making, and numerous Old Testament references to wine indicate the early origin and significance of the industry in the Middle East. The Greeks carried on an active wine trade and planted grapes in their colonies from the Black Sea to Spain. The Romans carried grape growing into the valleys of the Rhine and Moselle (which became the great regions of Germany and Alsace), the Danube (in modern-day Romania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Austria), and the Rhône, Saône, Garonne, Loire, and Marne (which define the great French regions of Rhône, Burgundy, Bordeaux, Loire, and Champagne, respectively). The role of wine in the Christian mass helped maintain the industry after the fall of the Roman Empire, and monastic orders preserved and developed many of the highly regarded wine-producing areas in Europe. Following the voyages of Columbus, grape culture and wine making were transported from the Old World to the New. Spanish missionaries took viticulture to Chile and Argentina in the mid-16th century and to lower California in the 18th. With the flood of European immigration in the 19th and early 20th centuries, modern industries, based on imported V. vinifera grapes, were developed. The prime wine-growing regions of South America were established in the foothills of the Andes Mountains. In California, the centre of viticulture shifted from the southern missions to the Central Valley and the northern counties of Sonoma, Napa, and Mendocino. British settlers planted European vines in Australia and New Zealand in the early 19th century, and Dutch settlers took grapes from the Rhine region to South Africa as early as 1654. The introduction of the eastern American root louse, phylloxera, seriously threatened wine industries around the world between 1870 and 1900, destroying vineyards almost everywhere that V. vinifera was planted but especially in Europe and parts of Australia and California. To combat this parasite, V. vinifera scions (detached shoots including buds) were grafted to species native to the eastern United States, which proved almost completely resistant to phylloxera. After the vineyards recovered, European governments protected the reputations of the great regions by enacting laws that allotted regional names and quality rankings only to those wines produced in specific regions under strictly regulated procedures. Today, newer wine-producing countries have passed similar regulations.

Wine regions and varieties

Almost all wines are labeled by the region of production, maturity of the fruit, variety of grape or type of wine, and year of production, and they can be further distinguished by colour, sweetness, and varietal aroma. Specific characteristics are traditionally associated with certain wines, and in many cases these traditions are guaranteed by law. Discussed below are the wines and viticultural laws of France, Italy, Germany, the United States, Australia, and South Africa. Many other countries produce enormous quantities of table wines. In Europe there are, for example, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, and Georgia. In North Africa and the Middle East there are Algeria, Tunisia, and Israel. In South America there are Brazil, Peru, Chile, and Argentina. In Asia the largest producer is Japan.

Europe

In Europe wines are primarily distinguished by the region where they are produced.

Wine in France

Most French wines are everyday vins ordinaires, of no outstanding regional, varietal, or vintage characteristics. The finest wines are entitled to the appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC; "controlled name of origin"), which is based on a hierarchy of specific geographic areas known to produce the best wines. The largest area in the hierarchy is the region; allowing for some variation, within the regions are districts, within the districts are communes, and within the communes are vineyards, or châteaus. To receive any of these successively more rigorous appellations, wines must be produced within specific areas and must meet standards of grape variety, alcoholic content, quantity of harvest, and techniques of vine growing and wine making. Of the smaller areas, some châteaus and communes receive rankings of quality such as villages, supérieure, and grand cru ("great vintage"). The greatest regions of France are Bordeaux, Burgundy, Rhône, Loire, Champagne, and Alsace. Following the AOC hierarchy, Bordeaux contains such districts as Médoc, which contains the commune Pauillac, which in turn contains three grand cru châteaus. Bordeaux wines are mainly red and dry (except for those of the district of Sauternes, which are white and sweet). Primary varieties for the red wines are Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and Merlot; for the white, Sauvignon Blanc and Sémillon. Burgundy is smaller than the Bordeaux region. It comprises the districts of Chablis (dry white wines), Côte d'Or (red and white), Beaujolais (red), and Mâcon (white and red). The white wines are made from Chardonnay or Aligoté, the red wines from Pinot Noir or (in Beaujolais) Gamay. The Rhône region produces mostly strong, full-bodied red wines from the Syrah grape. The Loire is known for its white wines, the district of Pouilly-Fumé using Sauvignon Blanc grapes and Vouvray using Chenin Blanc. In the Champagne, legal definitions extend to the bottle-fermentation process by which the sparkling wine is produced; Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are the principal varieties. Alsace defines its mostly dry white wines primarily by grape variety, producing Alsatian Riesling, Gewürztraminer, Pinot Gris, and Sylvaner. Wines receiving the classification vins délimités de qualité supérieure (VDQS; "delimited wines of superior quality") must meet standards of region, variety, alcohol content, and sensory quality that result in good quality but are less severe than those of the AOC.

Wine in Italy

Known for its huge output of everyday red vini da tavola ("table wines"), Italy labels its best traditional wines as denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) or denominazione di origine controllata e garantita (DOCG). These wines must be produced in specific regions and must adhere to standards similar to the French AOC. Labels may indicate the grape variety—as in Barbera d'Alba, a red wine of the Barbera grape grown in the district of Alba in the Piedmont region. Piedmont produces red Barolo and Barbaresco and the white, sparkling Asti Spumante. Vermouth, the flavoured dessert wine of Italy, originated in Turin, the principal Piedmontese city. From the district of Verona in the Veneto region come the red wines of Valpolicella and Bardolino and the whites of Soave. Tuscany is famous for the red wines of the various Chianti zones. Dry white Frascati wines come from the Latium region near Rome, while Marsala, the fortified wine sweetened with concentrated grape juice, comes from Sicily.

Wine in Germany

The prime viticultural areas of Germany fall into 11 regions, which are divided into districts, villages, and vineyards. A wine of better quality than the everyday Tafelwein and Landwein may receive the classification Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete (QbA; "quality wine from a designated region") if it is produced in a specific region and meets standards of taste and alcohol content. Sugar may be added in the production of QbA wines to make up for Germany's short, cool growing season. Wines of the highest category, Qualitätswein mit Prädikat (QmP; "quality wine with special attributes"), must come from specific districts and be fermented from their natural sugar. The various Prädikate reflect the ripeness of the grape and, therefore, the sweetness of the wine. In order of increasing sugar content, they are Kabinett (ripe harvest), Spätlese (late harvest), Auslese (selected late harvest), Beerenauslese (selected overripe), and Trockenbeerenauslese (from berries dried on the vine). About 90 percent of German wines are white. Riesling, Sylvaner, Müller-Thurgau, and Gewürztraminer grapes create the soft, fragrant, low-alcohol wines for which the country is famous.

Wine Regions outside Europe

The newer wine-producing countries, lacking the centuries-old viticultural regions of Europe, emphasize the grape variety in their production of fine wines. Beginning in the 1960s, some of these countries enacted regulations guaranteeing the authenticity of these wines.

Wine in the United States

Much American wine is mass-produced generic wine, often given such European-derived names as chablis, burgundy, and port. These brands must include an appellation of origin, such as California chablis, on the label. Varietal wines may be labeled after a V. vinifera grape if the designated variety makes up at least 75 percent of the product. It must then claim an appellation of origin. If the appellation is a county, state, or even the country, then no less than 75 percent of the wine's grapes must come from that area. If the appellation is one of the growing number of approved viticultural areas, then that area must account for 85 percent or more of the grapes. Wines may bear a vintage date if at least 95 percent of their grapes are harvested in that year. California produces about 90 percent of American wines. The Napa Valley, Sonoma County, and other cooler areas of the north coast region produce the best wines. Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay are the most prestigious, followed by Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir. The Zinfandel, grown almost exclusively in California, produces a wine equal to those of the classic European grapes. California wines tend to be of higher alcoholic content and more pronounced varietal aroma and flavour than their European counterparts.

Wine in Australia

The main regions are found in an arc rimming the cooler southern states of New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. The Shiraz grape produces fine red wines, as does the Cabernet Sauvignon. Prominent white wines are Sémillon and Chardonnay. Sweet dessert wines are produced from Muscat and other grapes.

Wine in South Africa

Under the Wines of Origin laws, 75 percent of a varietal wine must come from the designated variety. The wine may claim one of many designated regions of origin only if all of the grapes come from that region (80 percent for fortified wines). Long famous for sherry-type wines made from the Chenin Blanc (also called the Steen), South Africa also produces wines from several other noble varieties in areas along the cooler southwestern Cape.










			Wine History The spread of viticulture Vitis vinifera was being cultivated in the Middle East by 4000 BC, and probably earlier. Egyptian records dating from 2500 BC refer to the use of grapes for wine making, and numerous Old Testament references to wine indicate the early origin and significance of the industry in the Middle East. The Greeks carried on an active wine trade and planted grapes in their colonies from the Black Sea to Spain. The Romans carried grape growing into the valleys of the Rhine and Moselle (which became the great regions of Germany and Alsace), the Danube (in modern-day Romania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Austria), and the Rhône, Saône, Garonne, Loire, and Marne (which define the great French regions of Rhône, Burgundy, Bordeaux, Loire, and Champagne, respectively). The role of wine in the Christian mass helped maintain the industry after the fall of the Roman Empire, and monastic orders preserved and developed many of the highly regarded wine-producing areas in Europe. Following the voyages of Columbus, grape culture and wine making were transported from the Old World to the New. Spanish missionaries took viticulture to Chile and Argentina in the mid-16th century and to lower California in the 18th. With the flood of European immigration in the 19th and early 20th centuries, modern industries, based on imported V. vinifera grapes, were developed. The prime wine-growing regions of South America were established in the foothills of the Andes Mountains. In California, the centre of viticulture shifted from the southern missions to the Central Valley and the northern counties of Sonoma, Napa, and Mendocino. British settlers planted European vines in Australia and New Zealand in the early 19th century, and Dutch settlers took grapes from the Rhine region to South Africa as early as 1654. The introduction of the eastern American root louse, phylloxera, seriously threatened wine industries around the world between 1870 and 1900, destroying vineyards almost everywhere that V. vinifera was planted but especially in Europe and parts of Australia and California. To combat this parasite, V. vinifera scions (detached shoots including buds) were grafted to species native to the eastern United States, which proved almost completely resistant to phylloxera. After the vineyards recovered, European governments protected the reputations of the great regions by enacting laws that allotted regional names and quality rankings only to those wines produced in specific regions under strictly regulated procedures. Today, newer wine-producing countries have passed similar regulations. Wine regions and varieties Almost all wines are labeled by the region of production, maturity of the fruit, variety of grape or type of wine, and year of production, and they can be further distinguished by colour, sweetness, and varietal aroma. Specific characteristics are traditionally associated with certain wines, and in many cases these traditions are guaranteed by law. Discussed below are the wines and viticultural laws of France, Italy, Germany, the United States, Australia, and South Africa. Many other countries produce enormous quantities of table wines. In Europe there are, for example, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, and Georgia. In North Africa and the Middle East there are Algeria, Tunisia, and Israel. In South America there are Brazil, Peru, Chile, and Argentina. In Asia the largest producer is Japan. Europe In Europe wines are primarily distinguished by the region where they are produced. Wine in France Most French wines are everyday vins ordinaires, of no outstanding regional, varietal, or vintage characteristics. The finest wines are entitled to the appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC; "controlled name of origin"), which is based on a hierarchy of specific geographic areas known to produce the best wines. The largest area in the hierarchy is the region; allowing for some variation, within the regions are districts, within the districts are communes, and within the communes are vineyards, or châteaus. To receive any of these successively more rigorous appellations, wines must be produced within specific areas and must meet standards of grape variety, alcoholic content, quantity of harvest, and techniques of vine growing and wine making. Of the smaller areas, some châteaus and communes receive rankings of quality such as villages, supérieure, and grand cru ("great vintage"). The greatest regions of France are Bordeaux, Burgundy, Rhône, Loire, Champagne, and Alsace. Following the AOC hierarchy, Bordeaux contains such districts as Médoc, which contains the commune Pauillac, which in turn contains three grand cru châteaus. Bordeaux wines are mainly red and dry (except for those of the district of Sauternes, which are white and sweet). Primary varieties for the red wines are Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and Merlot; for the white, Sauvignon Blanc and Sémillon. Burgundy is smaller than the Bordeaux region. It comprises the districts of Chablis (dry white wines), Côte d'Or (red and white), Beaujolais (red), and Mâcon (white and red). The white wines are made from Chardonnay or Aligoté, the red wines from Pinot Noir or (in Beaujolais) Gamay. The Rhône region produces mostly strong, full-bodied red wines from the Syrah grape. The Loire is known for its white wines, the district of Pouilly-Fumé using Sauvignon Blanc grapes and Vouvray using Chenin Blanc. In the Champagne, legal definitions extend to the bottle-fermentation process by which the sparkling wine is produced; Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are the principal varieties. Alsace defines its mostly dry white wines primarily by grape variety, producing Alsatian Riesling, Gewürztraminer, Pinot Gris, and Sylvaner. Wines receiving the classification vins délimités de qualité supérieure (VDQS; "delimited wines of superior quality") must meet standards of region, variety, alcohol content, and sensory quality that result in good quality but are less severe than those of the AOC. Wine in Italy Known for its huge output of everyday red vini da tavola ("table wines"), Italy labels its best traditional wines as denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) or denominazione di origine controllata e garantita (DOCG). These wines must be produced in specific regions and must adhere to standards similar to the French AOC. Labels may indicate the grape variety—as in Barbera d'Alba, a red wine of the Barbera grape grown in the district of Alba in the Piedmont region. Piedmont produces red Barolo and Barbaresco and the white, sparkling Asti Spumante. Vermouth, the flavoured dessert wine of Italy, originated in Turin, the principal Piedmontese city. From the district of Verona in the Veneto region come the red wines of Valpolicella and Bardolino and the whites of Soave. Tuscany is famous for the red wines of the various Chianti zones. Dry white Frascati wines come from the Latium region near Rome, while Marsala, the fortified wine sweetened with concentrated grape juice, comes from Sicily. Wine in Germany The prime viticultural areas of Germany fall into 11 regions, which are divided into districts, villages, and vineyards. A wine of better quality than the everyday Tafelwein and Landwein may receive the classification Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete (QbA; "quality wine from a designated region") if it is produced in a specific region and meets standards of taste and alcohol content. Sugar may be added in the production of QbA wines to make up for Germany's short, cool growing season. Wines of the highest category, Qualitätswein mit Prädikat (QmP; "quality wine with special attributes"), must come from specific districts and be fermented from their natural sugar. The various Prädikate reflect the ripeness of the grape and, therefore, the sweetness of the wine. In order of increasing sugar content, they are Kabinett (ripe harvest), Spätlese (late harvest), Auslese (selected late harvest), Beerenauslese (selected overripe), and Trockenbeerenauslese (from berries dried on the vine). About 90 percent of German wines are white. Riesling, Sylvaner, Müller-Thurgau, and Gewürztraminer grapes create the soft, fragrant, low-alcohol wines for which the country is famous. Wine Regions outside Europe The newer wine-producing countries, lacking the centuries-old viticultural regions of Europe, emphasize the grape variety in their production of fine wines. Beginning in the 1960s, some of these countries enacted regulations guaranteeing the authenticity of these wines. Wine in the United States Much American wine is mass-produced generic wine, often given such European-derived names as chablis, burgundy, and port. These brands must include an appellation of origin, such as California chablis, on the label. Varietal wines may be labeled after a V. vinifera grape if the designated variety makes up at least 75 percent of the product. It must then claim an appellation of origin. If the appellation is a county, state, or even the country, then no less than 75 percent of the wine's grapes must come from that area. If the appellation is one of the growing number of approved viticultural areas, then that area must account for 85 percent or more of the grapes. Wines may bear a vintage date if at least 95 percent of their grapes are harvested in that year. California produces about 90 percent of American wines. The Napa Valley, Sonoma County, and other cooler areas of the north coast region produce the best wines. Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay are the most prestigious, followed by Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir. The Zinfandel, grown almost exclusively in California, produces a wine equal to those of the classic European grapes. California wines tend to be of higher alcoholic content and more pronounced varietal aroma and flavour than their European counterparts. Wine in Australia The main regions are found in an arc rimming the cooler southern states of New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. The Shiraz grape produces fine red wines, as does the Cabernet Sauvignon. Prominent white wines are Sémillon and Chardonnay. Sweet dessert wines are produced from Muscat and other grapes. Wine in South Africa Under the Wines of Origin laws, 75 percent of a varietal wine must come from the designated variety. The wine may claim one of many designated regions of origin only if all of the grapes come from that region (80 percent for fortified wines). Long famous for sherry-type wines made from the Chenin Blanc (also called the Steen), South Africa also produces wines from several other noble varieties in areas along the cooler southwestern Cape.